Fertility and Family Formation

Fertility has declined sharply in Finland since 2010. Low fertility accelerates population ageing and reduces the size of the working-age population in the coming decades. Lifelong childlessness also affects people’s need for support at different stages of the life course. 

This page brings together research carried out within the DEMOGRAPHY programme that examines fertility from multiple perspectives, including those of individuals, families, and society. 

The research findings provide up-to-date and reliable knowledge to support decision-making and to inform a wider audience interested in demographic changes. They help explain why fertility patterns are changing and what can be done to support family formation and adapt to low fertility. 

Publications

Andersson, L. (2023a). A novel macro perspective on family dynamics – The contribution of partnership contexts of births to cohort fertility rates. Population and Development Review, 49(3), 617–649. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12579 

Andersson, L. (2023b). The role of gender differences in partnering and re-partnering for gender differences in completed fertility. Population Research and Policy Review, 42, 17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-023-09767-1 

Andersson, L. (2024).  Suomalaiset saavat lapsen yhä todennäköisemmin vasta toisessa liitossaan [Tietoa päätösten tueksi 4/2024]. FLUX-konsortio. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/PB-FI-Andersson.pdf   

Andersson, L., Saarela, J., Jalovaara, M., & Uggla, C. (2023). A matter of time: Batemans principles and mating success as count and duration in contemporary Finland. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 290: 20231061 http://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2023.1061 

Andersson, L., Jalovaara, M., Saarela, J., & Uggla, C. (2022). Less is more: Repartnering and completed cohort fertility in Finland. Demography, 59(6), 2321–2339. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-10351787 

Aradhya, S., Tegunimataka, A., Kravdal, Ø., Martikainen, P., Myrskylä, M., Barclay, K., & Goisis, A. (2023). Maternal age and the risk of low birthweight and pre-term delivery: a pan-Nordic comparison. International journal of epidemiology, 52(1), 156–164. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyac211  

Artamonova, A., Sorsa, T., Berg, V., Hägglund, A. E., & Rotkirch, A. (2024a). Social resources are associated with higher fertility intentions in contemporary Finland. Comparative Population Studies, 49. https://doi.org/10.12765/CPoS-2024-04​ 

Artamonova, A., Sorsa, T., Berg, V., Hägglund, A. E., & Rotkirch, A. (2024b). Counting on parents or others? The role of social support for fertility intentions in Finland. Finnish Yearbook of Population Research, 57, 165–190. https://doi.org/10.23979/fypr.131297

Carlsson, E. (2025). Fertility Differences by Type of Residence Permit Among Female Immigrants in Sweden. Population Space and Place, 31(4), Article e70045. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.70045

Chapman, S. N., Kotimäki, S., Helske, S., & Hägglund, A. E. (2026). Support or suppress: Father’s parental leave uptake in the private-sector workplace context in Finland. Journal of Social Policy, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279426101287

Danielsbacka, M., Tanskanen, A.O., & Billari, F.C. (2022). Meeting online and family-related outcomes: evidence from three German cohorts. Journal of Family Studies, 28(4), 1390 –1415. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13229400.2020.1835694 

Dierker, P., Kühn, M. & Myrskylä, M. (2025). Re-partnering and single mothers’ mental health and life satisfaction trajectories. Journal of Marriage and Family 87(1), 157–181. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.13015 

Eerola, P., Närvi, J., & Lammi-Taskula, J. (2022). Can fathers’ leave take-up dismantle gendered parental responsibilities? Evidence from Finland. Journal of Family Research, 34(3), 958–982. https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-723  

Estévez, J. L., & Rotkirch, A. (2026). Fertility trends across migrant generations reexamined: insights from Finnish register data. European Sociological Review, jcag009, https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcag009

Gissler, M. (2024). Lähes 6 prosenttia lapsista syntyy hedelmöityshoitojen avulla – lastensaannin myöhentyminen lisää hoitojen tarvetta [Tietoa päätösten tueksi 2/2024]. FLUX-konsortio. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/PB-Gissler-FI.pdf    

Goisis, A., & Myrskylä, M. (2021). Well-being of children born after medically assisted reproduction. Gynäkologe, 54, 917–921. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00129-021-04872-8​ 

Goisis, A., Palma, M., Metsä-Simola, N., Klemetti, R., Martikainen, P., Myrskylä, M., Pelikh, A., Tosi, M., & Remes, H. (2023). Medically assisted reproduction and mental health: A 24-year longitudinal analysis using Finnish register data. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 228(3), 311.e1–311.e24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2022.10.041 

Golovina, K., Nitsche, N., Berg, V., Miettinen, A., Rotkirch, A., & Jokela, M. (2024). Birth cohort changes in fertility ideals: Evidence from repeated cross-sectional surveys in Finland. European Sociological Review, 40(2), 326–341. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcad048 

Golovina, K., Elovainio, M., & Hakulinen, C. (2023). Association between depression and the likelihood of having children: A nationwide register study in Finland. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 228(2), 211.e1–211.e11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2022.10.016​ 

Hellstrand, H., & Jalovaara, M. (2026). Finnish fertility: First births matter even more than before and lifetime fertility outlook has weakened [Policy Brief 1/2026]. FLUX-consortium. University of Turku. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2026/04/PB-Hellstrand-Jalovaara-EN.pdf

Hellstrand, J., Nisén, J., & Myrskylä, M. (2024). Educational field, economic uncertainty, and fertility decline in Finland in 2010–2019. European Sociological Review, 40(5), 754–771. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcae001 

Hellstrand, J., Nisén, J., & Myrskylä, M. (2024). Syntyvyys laskenut jyrkimmin taloudellisesti epävarmoilla koulutusaloilla [Tietoa päätösten tueksi 2/2022]. FLUX-konsortio. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PB-FI-Hellstrand-ym.pdf    

Hellstrand, J., Nisén, J., & Myrskylä, M. (2022). Less partnering, less children, or both? Analysis of the drivers of first birth decline in Finland since 2010. European Journal of Population, 38, 191–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-022-09605-8​ 

Hellstrand, J., Nisén, J., & Myrskylä, M. (2022). Suomalaiset naiset saavat lapsia sekä myöhemmin että vähemmän kuin aikaisemmin [Tietoa päätösten tueksi 2/2022]. FLUX-konsortio. Turun yliopisto.  https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Hellstrand-Nisen.pdf  

Helske, S., Jalovaara, M., Lammi-Taskula, J., Miettinen, A., Nisén, J., & Österbacka, E. (2025). Toimiva perhevapaajärjestelmä tukee hyvinvointia sekä yhteiskunnan sosiaalista ja taloudellista kestävyyttä [Tietoa päätösten tueksi 3/2025]. FLUX-konsortio. Turun yliopisto.  https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/PB-FI-Helske-ym.pdf  

Härkönen, J., Jalovaara, M., Lappalainen, E., & Miettinen, A. (2023). Double disadvantage in a Nordic welfare state: A demographic analysis of the single-parent employment gap in Finland, 1987–2018. European Journal of Population, 39(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-023-09651-w 

Härkönen, J., Jalovaara, M., & Miettinen, A. (2023). Puolisottomien äitien ja isien työllisyys on jäänyt selvästi jälkeen puolison kanssa asuvien vanhempien työllisyydestä [Policy Brief 3/2023]. FLUX: Tietoa päätösten tueksi. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/PB-Miettinen-Jalovaara-Harkonen.pdf  

Jalovaara, M., & Andersson, L. (2023). A register-based account of period trends in union prevalence, entries, and exits by educational level for men and women in Finland. Demographic Research, 48(14), 373–386. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2023.48.14 

Jalovaara, M., & Miettinen, A. (2022). Korkeasti koulutetut saavat usein kaksi lasta – enintään keskiasteen koulutuksen saaneilla yleistyvät sekä lapsettomuus että suuret lapsiluvut [Policy Brief 1/2022]. FLUX: Tietoa päätösten tueksi. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Jalovaara_Miettinen.pdf  

Jalovaara, M., Rahnu, L., & Miettinen, A. (2026). Employment status and entry into parenthood: Weaker labor market status an unlikely driver of cohort fertility decline in a Nordic welfare state. Acta Sociologica, article 00016993251403380 https://doi.org/10.1177/00016993251403380

Jasilioniene, A., Jasilionis, D., Jdanov, D., & Myrskylä, M. (2025). Association between the COVID-19 vaccination campaign and fertility trends: a population-level time series analysis for 22 countries. BMJ Public Health, 3(1), Article 001410. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjph-2024-001410

Kailaheimo-Lönnqvist. S., & Myrskylä, M. (2025). Mielenterveyshäiriöt yhteydessä lapsettomuuteen – selittävänä tekijänä parisuhteiden puuttuminen ja lyhytkestoisuus [Policy Brief 1/2025]. FLUX: Tietoa päätösten tueksi. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/PB-Kailaheimo-ym.pdf    

Kailaheimo-Lönnqvist, S., Moustgaard, H., Martikainen, P., & Myrskylä, M. (2024). Own depression, partner’s depression, and childlessness: A nationwide register-based study. Social Science & Medicine, 361, 117356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117356  

Karhunen, O., Jokela, M., & Golovina, K. (2023). Associations between early family environment and fertility ideals. International Journal of Psychology, 58(6), 574–583. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12933 

Kemppainen, V., Mentula, M., Seppälä, T., Gissler, M., Rouhe, H., Terhi, S., Heikinheimo, O., & Niinimäki, M. (2024). Fear of childbirth after induced abortion in primiparous women: Population-based register study from Finland. Acta obstetricia et gynecologica Scandinavica, 103(2), 241–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/aogs.14718  

Klemetti, R., Perry, B., Aaris Henningsen, A. K., Spangmose, A. L., Pinborg, A., Opdahl, S., Romundstad, L. B., Bergh, C., Wennerholm, U. B., Tiitinen, A., & Gissler, M. (2022). Puberty disorders among ART-conceived singletons: A Nordic register study from the CoNARTaS group. Human Reproduction, 37(10), 2402–2411. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deac192 

Lindqvist, P. G., Gissler, M., & Essén, B. (2023). Is there a relation between stillbirth and low levels of vitamin D in the population? A bi-national follow-up study of vitamin D fortification. BMC pregnancy and childbirth, 23(1), 359. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05673-8  

Liu, A., Akimova, E.T., Ding, X., Jukarinen, S., Vartiainen, P., Kiiskinen, T., Koskelainen, S., Havulinna, A.S., Gissler, M., Lombardi, S., Fall, T., Mills, M.C., Ganna, A. (2024). Evidence from Finland and Sweden on the relationship between early-life diseases and lifetime childlessness in men and women, Nature Human Behaviour 8, 276–287. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01763-x 

Lorenti, A., Nisén, J., Mencarini, L., & Myrskylä, M. (2024). Gendered parenthood-employment gaps from midlife: A demographic perspective. European Journal of Population, 40, 16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-024-09699-2 

Luukkonen, J., Junna, L., Remes, H., & Martikainen, P. (2023). The association of lowered alcohol prices with birth outcomes and abortions: A population‐based natural experiment. Addiction, 118(5), 836-844. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.16119  

Mannerström, R., Sortheix, F. M., Hietajärvi, L., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2025). Longitudinal associations between personal identity and parenthood among Finnish young adults. Advances in Life Course Research, 64, 100662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2025.100662  

Mannerström, R., Sortheix, F., Hietajärvi, L., Ilmarinen, V.-J., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2025). Psykososiaaliset tekijät perheellistymisessä [Policy brief 2/2025]. FLUX-konsortio. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/PB-Mannerstrom-Sortheix-FI.pdf    

Marois, G., Rotkirch, A., & Lutz, W. (2022). Future population ageing and productivity in Finland under different education and fertility scenarios. Finnish Yearbook of Population Research, 56, 137–160. https://doi.org/10.23979/fypr.119666  

Morosow, K., & Jalovaara, M. (2025). Single and partnered mothers’ labour market consequences of long family leave. Community, Work & Family, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2025.2535739

Myrskylä, M., Hellstrand, J., Lappo, S., Lorenti, A., Nisén, J., Rao, Z., & Tikanmäki, H. (2025). Declining fertility, human capital investment, and economic sustainability. Demography, 62(2), 489–514. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-11858484  

Myrskylä, M., Hellstrand, J., Lappo, S., Lorenti, A., Nisén, J., Rao, Z., & Tikanmäki, H. (2024). Koulutukseen panostaminen tasaa matalan syntyvyyden vaikutusta – jopa ilman lisärahoitusta [Tietoa päätösten tueksi 5/2024]. FLUX-konsortio. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/PB-FI-Myrskyla-ym.pdf  

Mäkelä, T., Saisto, T., Salmela-Aro, K. Miettinen, J., Sintonen, H. & Rouhe, H.  (2023). Prenatal wellbeing of mothers, their partners, and couples: a cross-sectional descriptive study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 23, 468. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05790-4  

Nisén, J., Dahlberg, J., Slabá, J., & Trimarchi, A. (2026). Gender Differences in the Timing and Chances of Parenthood Across Regions. Population, Space and Place, 32, e70187. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.70187

Nisén, J., Erlandsson, A., & Jalovaara, M. (2024). Gendered relationship of childbearing with earnings accumulated by midlife. Journal of Family and Economic Issues. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-024-09986-4  

Nisén, J. (2023) Vanhemmuuden viivästyminen vaikuttaa eri tavoin naisten ja miesten työuriin [Tietoa päätösten tueksi 1/2023]. FLUX-konsortio. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/230228-Nisen.pdf   

Nisén, J., Bijlsma, M. J., Martikaine, P., Wilson, B. & Myrskylä, M. (2022a). The gendered impacts of delayed parenthood. Advances in Life Course Research, 53, 100496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2022.100496  

Nisén, J., Jalovaara, M., Rotkirch, A., & Gissler, M. (2022b). Fertility recovery despite the COVID-19 pandemic in Finland? Finnish Journal of Social Research, 15, 25–44. https://doi.org/10.51815/fjsr.120361  

Nisén, J., Klüsener, S., Dahlberg, J., Dommermuth, L., Jasilioniene, A., Kreyenfeld, M., Lappegård, T., Li, P., Martikainen, P., Neels, K., Riederer, B., te Riele, S., Sulak, H., Szabó, L., Trimarchi, A., Viciana, F., & Myrskylä, M. (2025a). Economic conditions, education and parity-specific fertility: A sub-national regional study across 15 countries in Europe. Population, Space and Place, 31(5), e70074. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.70074

Nisén, J., Tassot, J., Iacoella, F., & Eibich, P. (2025b). Does early timing of first birth lead to lower earnings in midlife in Britain? Journal of Family Research, 37, 373–394. https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-1205

Närvi, J., Eerola, P., Lammi-Taskula, J., & Terävä, J. (2025). Continuities, changes, and critical moments: a longitudinal analysis of sharing parental responsibilities in Finland. Journal of Family Studies, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2025.2548597

Pelikh, A., Smith, K. R., Myrskylä, M., Debbink, M. P., & Goisis, A. (2025). Maternal Morbidity and Medically Assisted Reproduction Treatment Types. Obstetrics and Gynecology (New York. 1953), 145(2), 220–230. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000005808

Pelikh, A., Smith, K., Myrskylä, M., & Goisis, A. (2022). Medically assisted reproduction treatment types. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 139(2), 211–222. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000004655  

Peters, S., & Barclay, K. (2025). Leadership skills and family formation among males: A study based on Swedish register data. Vienna Yearbook of Population Research, 23(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1553/p-kbjc-5fmn

Ponkilainen, M., Einiö, E., Pietiläinen, M., & Myrskylä, M. (2024). Educational differences in fertility among female same-sex couples. Demography, 61(6), 2053–2079. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-11687583  

Ponkilainen, M., Einiö, E., Pietiläinen, M., & Myrskylä, M. (2024).  Naisparien todennäköisyys saada lapsia on kasvanut, mutta vain korkeasti koulutetuilla [Tietoa päätösten tueksi 6/2024]. FLUX-konsortio. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/PB-FI-Ponkilainen-ym.pdf   

Rahnu, L., & Jalovaara, M. (2023). Partnership dynamics and entry into parenthood. Advances in Life Course Research, 56, 100548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2023.100548 

Rees, A., Schnor, C., & Jalovaara, M. (2025). Partnership pathways associated with lifetime childlessness in Belgium and Finland. Finnish Journal of Social Research. https://doi.org/10.51815/fjsr.146184  

Rickard, I. J., Vullioud, C., Rousset, F., Postma, E., Helle, S., Lummaa, V., Kylli, R., Pettay, J. E., Røskaft, E., Skjærvø, G. R., Störmer, C., Voland, E., Waldvogel, D., & Courtiol, A. (2022). Mothers with higher twinning propensity had lower fertility in pre-industrial Europe. Nature Communications, 13, Article 2886. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-30366-9  

Riukula, K. (2024). Preference for sons: Still a trend? Review of Economics of the Household, 22, 1579–1601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-024-09718-5 

Räsänen, T., & Österbacka, E. (2024). Subsidizing private childcare in a universal regime. Review of Economics of the Household, 22, 199–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-023-09657-7 

Räsänen, T. & Österbacka, E. (2023). Lastenhoidon tukien uudistus voi lisätä tasa-arvoa sekä sukupuolten että sosioekonomisten ryhmien välillä [Tietoa päätösten tueksi 2/2023]. FLUX-konsortio. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Rasanen_Osterbacka.pdf   

Saarikallio-Torp, M., Lammi-Taskula, J., Miettinen, A., Närvi, J., & Sihvonen, E. (2025). Gender role attitudes, perceptions of parenthood and father’s parental leave use in Finland. In Caring Fathers in the Global Context (pp. 212–230). https://doi.org/10.56687/9781447372448-016

Salonen, M., Lahdenperä, M., Rotkirch, A., & Lummaa, V. (2024). Fertility resilience varies by socioeconomic status. iScience, 27(7), 110227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.110227 

Savelieva, K., Jokela, M., & Rotkirch, A. (2022). Reasons to postpone childbearing. Marriage & Family Review, 59(3), 253–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2022.2083283 

Siippainen, A., Närvi, J., & Alasuutari, M. (2023). The puzzles of daily life: The temporal orders of families when parents have non-standard work schedules. International Journal of Social Welfare, 32(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsw.12576 

Silvan, E., Saisto, T., Mäkelä, T., Salmela-Aro, K., Gissler, M. & Lampio, L. (2025). Fear of childbirth and psychiatric disorders. Reproductive Health, 22, 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-025-01949-8  

Sortheix, F. M., Ilmarinen, V.-J., Mannerström, R., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2025). Gender and values in 20 years of the European Social Survey: Are gender-typical values linked to parenthood? European Journal of Personality. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/08902070251332098

Tanskanen, A. O., Danielsbacka, M., & Hämäläinen, H. (2023). Child-rearing: Gender roles. In T. K. Shackelford (Ed.), Encyclopedia of sexual psychology and behavior. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5_61-1 

Välimäki, S., Lammi-Taskula, J., Mesiäislehto, M., & Närvi, J. (2024). Growing inequality and diverging paths in early childhood education and care: Educational disparities in Europe. Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy, 40(1), 93-108. https://doi.org/10.1017/ics.2024.13 

Välimäki, S., Lammi-Taskula, J., Mesiäislehto, M., & Närvi, J. (2024). Yhä useammat alle 3-vuotiaat osallistuvat varhaiskasvatukseen – Suomessa kehitys hitaampaa kuin muualla Euroopassa [Tietoa päätösten tueksi 3/2024]. FLUX-konsortio. Turun yliopisto. https://fluxconsortium.fi/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/PB-FI-Valimaki-ym.pdf    

Wood, J., Marynissen, L., Nisén, J., Fallesen, P., Neels, K., Trimarchi, A., Dommermuth, L., van Gaalen, R., Kolk, M., & Martikainen, P. (2025). Regional differentiation in women’s educational gradients in fertility around the turn of the century: Urban-rural differences in northern and western Europe. Vienna Yearbook of Population Research, 23, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1553/P-4CGN-NZ7F

Österbacka, E., & Räsänen, T. (2025). The importance of self selection and childcare leave length. European Journal of Population, 41(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-024-09726-2 

Österbacka, E., & Räsänen, T. (2024). The Association Between Gendered Workplaces and the Length of Childcare Leave. Finnish Yearbook of Population Research, 57, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.23979/fypr.131786